The Writerโs Guide to the Technology of Ships
Posted on December 9, 2022 1 Comment
Most people look at a sailing ship and donโt think of it as a piece of technology. But technology is โthe application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes,โ according to the dictionary. Ship sails and hulls are the product of millennia of practical scientific application. If a hull has an incorrect shape, the ship wonโt be buoyant. If a sail is an incorrect shape, it wonโt catch the optimal amount of wind. Here are the basics of the physics of ships.
As always, magic is the exception to the rule. Because magic.
Hull
The shape of the hull is important because it creates enough buoyancy for the ship to float. The earliest boats had simple rounded hulls, such as canoes. But ship builders experimented with different shapes. Most ship hulls throughout history and up to the modern day are wide on the sides before curving down to the keel.
Most hulls taper toward the bow and stern, with the widest section in the center. This reduces drag and allows the hull to slip through the water. The surface is made as smooth as possible to further reduce drag.
Hull shapes break down into several subcategories. Hard chined hulls have flat planes that meet at sharp angles. Moulded, round bilged, or soft chined hulls have smooth curves and are the most common today. [3] Some hulls are designed primarily for displacement, while others are constructed for high speed and planing across the surface of the water.
There are pros and cons to each shape. For example, flat-bottomed hulls are more stable but have high drag, so the vessel is slower. A severely tapered hull can be fast but can also be unstable, leading to the danger of heeling, or leaning far to one size, and capsizing.
Sails
The sails are used to catch the wind coming from the back of the ship and pull the vessel along the surface of the water. The sails act as an airfoil and provide lift, although only to a certain point before drag asserts itself. [2] There is an incredible amount of physics behind a shipโs sail.
Most ships can adjust the placement of their sails so they can catch wind coming from different directions. This is known as trimming and is achieved by adjusting the running rigging. Sails can use wind coming from the sides and the back. Ships can use wind coming from the front by tacking or zigzagging back and forth to fill the sails from the side.
There are three general sail shapes that have been used throughout history.
Square sails are exactly what they sound like. This shape is the one that most people think of when they picture a sailing ship. The sails are suspended from a yard attached to the mast. There are paintings of ancient Egyptian ships with square sails from as early as 3200 BCE. [1]
The crab claw rig is a sail spread between two spars which meet at one end. This style of sail was used extensively in the Pacific Ocean by the people of Micronesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar. It enabled them to sail vast distances of open ocean and is mostly used on catamarans and outriggers. [4]
Lateen sails are triangular and suspended from a canted yard. They were used extensively in the Mediterranean, beginning in the 2nd century CE. [5] This style is believed to be a variation of the crab claw sail that developed from contact with Southeast Asian Austronesian trading ships in the Indian Ocean. [6] Lateen sails have better upwind performance than square sails, especially on smaller vessels, and beginning in the 15th century, became the most common for ships sailing rivers and the Mediterranean. [7] However, square sails were still the standard for trans-Atlantic and North Sea sailing.
I hope this was helpful. Let me know if you have questions or suggestions by using the Contact Me form on my website or by writing a comment. I post every Friday and would be grateful if you would share my content.
If you want my blog delivered straight to your inbox every month along with exclusive content and giveaways, please sign up for my email list here.
Letโs get writing!
Copyright ยฉ 2022 Rebecca Shedd. All rights reserved.
[1] John Coleman Darnell (2006). โThe Wadi of the Horus Qa-a: A Tableau of Royal Ritual Power in the Theban Western Desertโ. Yale. Archived from the original on 2011-02-01. Retrieved 2010-08-24. [2] Batchelor, G.K. (1967), An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, pp. 14โ15, ISBN 978-0-521-66396-0 [3] Zeilen: Van beginner tot gevorderde by Karel Heijnen [4] Doran, Edwin Jr. (1974). โOutrigger Agesโ. The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 83 (2): 130โ140. [5] I. C. Campbell, โThe Lateen Sail in World Historyโ Archived 2016-08-04 at the Wayback Machine, Journal of World History (University of Hawaii), 6.1 (Spring 1995), p. 1โ23 [6] Hourani, George Fadlo (1951). Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. [7] Chatterton, Edward Keble (1912). Fore and aft. London: J. B. Lippincott. p. 203. OCLC 651733391. fore and aft rig schooner.
The Writerโs Guide: Introduction to Sailing Ships
Posted on November 25, 2022 2 Comments
There is something romantic, magical even, about sailing ships. Vessels with motors lack a certain enchantment. It should come as no surprise that writers love to include sailing craft in literature and many an adventure yarn starts with boarding a ship. The vessel can be a vital part of the story, such as the Hispaniola in Robert Louis Stevensonโs Treasure Island, or just an enchanting element like the silver ship that carries Frodo and Bilbo into the West at the end of The Return of the King.
Yet since most people do not have hands-on experience with sailing, the average writer knows little about them. In this series, I will cover a wide sweep of topics, including the technology of the sailing ship, navigation, and the history of sailing. For today, I will go through the basics.
As always, magic is the exception to the rule. Because magic.
Basic Terminology
Ships and sailing have their own terminology, which can sound like their own language.
Hull โ The outer body of the ship. Hulls come in a variety of shapes and can be made of wood, metal, or fiberglass.
Keel โ The bottom structural ridge of the hull. It strengthens the hull and can serve a hydrodynamic or counterbalancing function.
Deck โ The top floor and one that forms a ceiling over the compartments and cabins on the decks below. It helps hold the hull together, protects the lower decks from the weather, and is the main working surface for the crew. Not all ships have decks, with those that donโt use the inside of the hull as a deck.
Mast โ A vertical spar secured to the deck that supports the sails. They were originally made of wood, commonly entire tree trunks, but have also been made of metal and fiberglass.
Yard โ A horizontal spar attached to a mast from which sails are suspended. They are mostly used on square-rigged sails.
Sail โ A large sheet of fabric suspended from a mast or yard used to catch the wind.
Rigging โ The series of ropes, cables, and chains that secure the sails, yards, and masts. There are two types: standing and running. Standing rigging is fixed in position while running rigging is tightened or loosening to change the shape and position of the sails.
Rudder โ A flat fixture on the back of a boat below the waterline that is adjusted to change the direction of the vessel.
Wheel โ The device that controls the rudder. It is on the deck at the back of the ship.
Forecastle or Foโcโsโle โ A raised deck at the front of a ship. Forecastles can be only slightly higher than the main deck or significantly taller. Medieval ships had fortified raised front decks that looked like castles. In the following centuries, the name forecastle was shortened to foโcโsโle.
Quarter Deck โ A raised deck behind the mainmast. Traditionally, it was the location from which the captain commanded the vessel.
Poop Deck โ A tall deck at the rear of a ship. It was usually taller than the quarterdeck and originally fortified like the forecastle. The name comes from the French word la poupe, which means stern, since it is at the back.
Anchor โ A heavy device used to secure a vessel to the bottom of the ocean or other body of water. This prevents the craft from drifting with the wind or current.
Port โ The left side of a ship.
Starboard โ The right side of a ship.
Bow โ The front of a ship.
Stern โ The back of a ship.
I hope this was helpful. Let me know if you have questions or suggestions by using the Contact Me form on my website or by writing a comment. I post every Friday and would be grateful if you would share my content.
If you want my blog delivered straight to your inbox every month along with exclusive content and giveaways, please sign up for my email list here.
Letโs get writing!
Copyright ยฉ 2022 Rebecca Shedd. All rights reserved.
Writerโs Deep Dive: Toledo Steel
Posted on November 11, 2022 1 Comment
Damascus, Syria was not the only city that became famous for its steel. Toledo, Spain was also producing high quality and highly valued blades from ancient times.
Now, letโs dive in!
What is Toledo Steel?
Toledo steel was famous for being flexible and strong and its production was a closely guarded secret until the 20th century. It started with the metals. An envelope of steel was folded around a wrought iron strip, which gave the metal the strength of the steel and the flexibility of the iron. The combination of metals was heated, and forge welded together. This technique is called san mai by modern bladesmiths and is often used when forging swords and knives. Itโs also known as the โtacoโ method. Because of this technique, Toledo steel was said to have a โsoul of iron.โ [1]
The second secret was the production with a strict schedule of heating, cooling, and temperature. If the process was not followed exactly, the blade would not be of the highest quality. Originally, prayers and psalms were carefully recited with the same rhythm to keep the timing. This process was long and difficult and the average bladesmith produced two to three weapons per year.
History
Historians are unsure when the peoples of Iberia began making Toledo steel, but the tribes of ancient Hispania were famous for a type of sword known as a falcata. It was thought to be more fatal than other weapons. [1] The steel and style of sword became prized by the 3rd century when Hannibal choose to arm his soldiers with them during the Second Punic War. The Romans were impressed by their quality and later made Toledo the standard source of steel for their legions. [2]
The production of Toledo steel continued under the Muslin occupation of the Iberian Peninsula but reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries after the Christians regained control of southern Spain. [3]
However, as armies replaced their swords with guns, blacksmithing and bladesmithing began to die out. In 1761, King Carlos III of Spain ordered the creation of the Royal Sword Factory in Toledo to preserve the techniques and methods of steel production. [4] Unfortunately, the art has continued to decline and as of 2021, only one master swordsmith remained in Toledo. [5]
Besides Hannibal and his army, other famous warriors to carry Toledo swords include El Cid with his swords, Tizona and Colada, Emperor Charles V, and Charlemagne. Also, the ceremonial sword of the Catholic monarchs used to knight Christopher Columbus was Toledo steel. [1]
The Write Angle
Sword-making cities can be a fantastic inspiration for fantasy writers. Is there a unique type of metal or weapon in your novel? Is there a famous forge or city of bladesmiths? Does your hero or heroine carry a legendary sword with a name?
I hope this was helpful. Let me know if you have questions or suggestions by using the Contact Me form on my website or by writing a comment. I post every Friday and would be grateful if you would share my content.
If you want my blog delivered straight to your inbox every month along with exclusive content and giveaways, please sign up for my email list here.
Letโs get writing!
Copyright ยฉ 2022 Rebecca Shedd. All rights reserved.
[1] https://artesaniamorales.com/en/contenido/6-the-toledo-sword [2] Diodorus Siculus 5.33.4 [3] โLa Real Fรกbrica de Espadas de Toledo y el mejor acero del mundoโ. 17 September 2015. [4] โThe Bite of Spanish Steel: An Introduction to the Metal that Made Toledoโ. May 2017. [5] https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/24/toledos-last-swordmakers-refuse-to-give-up-on-their-ancient-craft
The Writerโs Guide to Casting Metal
Posted on October 28, 2022 2 Comments
While blacksmithing may be the most well-known method of shaping metal, casting is a craft just as ancient. Casting can also produce intricate shapes that a blacksmith cannot match. Casting is commonly represented in fiction, especially in the โgearing upโ scenes, although many of those scenes are inaccurate.
As always, magic is the exception to the rule. Because magic.
History
As I mentioned in my Writerโs Deep Dive: Metalworkers, the oldest cast piece is a copper frog from 3200 BC, that was found in Mesopotamia. [1] However, it is believed that the origins of metal casting are rooted in Southern Asia, specifically China, India, and Pakistan. [2] Most of these early pieces were tools, weapons, and religious statues.
Ancient people commonly added lead when casting copper because it made the molten copper more fluid, allowing them to cast more intricate designs. An example is the dancing girl statue from Mohenjo-daro. [3]
India was the first to use casting to mass produce coins, starting with silver but switching to copper alloy. They stacked multiple coin template molds in a clay cylinder and poured molten metal down the center. This method produced one hundred coins at once. [3]
Types of Casting
Lost Wax Casting โ This method is used to create a replica. A mold is made from the original and from the mold, a wax or paraffin cast is made. The wax is covered in a fireproof material such as clay, then heated upside down so that the wax runs out or is โlost.โ Then the remaining clay mold is filled with molten metal. The original object can either be a carved wax model or a finished piece, such as a metal statue.
This method of casting is one of the most ancient. The oldest examples of lost wax casting are gold artifacts that were found in Bulgaria. [4] A record was found on a clay tablet in Sparta, Babylon that specified how much wax was needed to cast a key. [5] This technique was adopted early in the Middle East and West Africa. China and Western Europe adopted the method much later. [3]
Mold Casting โ Also known as molding, this process involves pouring molten metal into a rigid mold. Early molds were made of stone or ceramic. Articulated molds had multiple pieces that assembled to form a complete mold. [6] One method, known as piece-molding, used different molds to create separate pieces that were joined. Larger pieces such as statues were cast in pieces rather than the whole being cast at once.
Writerโs Tip: It has become common to see mold casting used to create swords in many fantasy movies and TV shows. However, mold casting is not a suitable method for creating a sword. Forging and tempering produce much better blades. Casting can produce good quality spearheads.
Sand Casting โ A form of mold casting, this method uses an impression made in sand as the mold rather than a carved stone or molded ceramic mold. The sand is commonly mixed with clay to help it hold its shape. Molds made of sand are cheap, but they wear out faster than a stone or ceramic mold and also cannot produce the fine detail that other methods can.
Plaster Casting โ This method is like sand casting but uses plaster instead of sand for the molding material. It can only be used with non-ferrous materials. The metal cools more slowly with this method than with sand casting, allowing time for the metal to fill thin cross-sections, creating more complex and detailed parts. [7]
Other Methods โ There are more modern methods of casting that I have not covered. I choose to highlight those used during the ancient and medieval periods. Other methods include die casting, centrifugal casting, investment casting, rapid casting, and squeeze casting.
Finishing
Once the raw castings are released from the mold, they must be finished. The primary work is removing the unwanted extra metal, which includes the access port through which the metal was poured. This process is known as fettling and is often time-consuming. [8] After that, the piece is smoothed with filing or grinding and assembled, if it has multiple parts.
I hope this was helpful. Let me know if you have questions or suggestions by using the Contact Me form on my website or by writing a comment. I post every Friday and would be grateful if you would share my content.
If you want my blog delivered straight to your inbox every month along with exclusive content and giveaways, please sign up for my email list here.
Letโs get writing!
Copyright ยฉ 2022 Rebecca Shedd. All rights reserved.
[1] Ravi, B. (2005), Metal Casting: Computer-Aided Design and Analysis (1st ed.), PHI, ISBN 81-203-2726-8 [2] Davey, Christopher J. (2009). J. Mei; Th. Rehren (eds.). The early history of lost-wax casting. Metallurgy and Civilisation: Eurasia and Beyond. London. pp. 147โ154. [3] Craddock, Paul T (October 8, 2014). โThe Metal Casting Traditions of South Asia: Continuity and Innovationโ. Indian Journal of History of Science. 50 (1): 55โ82. [4] Leusch, Verena; Armbruster, Barbara; Pernicka, Ernst; Slavฤev, Vladimir (2015-02-01). "On the Invention of Gold Metallurgy: The Gold Objects from the Varna I Cemetery (Bulgaria)โTechnological Consequence and Inventive Creativity". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 25 (1): 353โ376. doi:10.1017/S0959774314001140. ISSN 0959-7743. S2CID 163291835. [5] Hunt, L. B. (1980). The Long History of Lost Wax Casting, Gold Bulletin. p. 66-79. [6] โArticulated mold assembly and method of use thereofโ. google.com. 14 March 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2018. [7] Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4 [8] T F Waters (11 September 2002). Fundamentals of Manufacturing For Engineers. CRC Press. pp. 17โ. ISBN 978-0-203-50018-7.
Writerโs Deep Dive: Damascus Steel
Posted on October 14, 2022 3 Comments
Damascus steel blades have been prized for their sharpness, durability, and balance of hardness and flexibility. Throughout history, steel has been valued, upheld as a gift from the gods. Yet Damascus steel has a legendary status and to this day is ascribed near-mythological properties.
Now, letโs dive in!
What is Damascus Steel?
Damascus is a high carbon steel alloy that exhibits a unique pattern when forged. [2]
The metal was developed in southern India and Sri Lanka during the mid-1st millennium BCE and was known as Wootz steel or Seric steel. A mixture of cast iron (also known as pig iron), iron, and sometimes steel was heated to extreme temperatures in a crucible that was commonly made of clay. [1] Often sand, glass, ashes, and other fluxes or cleaning agents were added to the mixture. The charcoal or coal fires in use at the time could not produce temperatures high enough to melt steel. They could, however, melt cast iron. As the iron or steel sat in the melted cast iron, they absorbed its carbon, creating a composite. The hot metal was then poured into molds to form ingots or billets. [3]
However, the mix of metals in these ingots was irregular and the carbon unevenly dispersed. To spread the mixtures of metals more evenly, during the forging process, the billet was drawn out, then folded back on itself hundreds or even thousands of times. Rather than quenching, the blades were commonly hardened by repeated heating and air cooling in a process called thermal cycling. Filing and polishing a forged Damascus blade revealed an intricate pattern. Often the banding is reminiscent of flowing water, but other patterns, such as โladderโ and โroseโ were possible. This distinct patterning is the hallmark of Damascus steel. Unlike etched metal, the swirling pattern runs through the entire blade and not just the surface. If a Damascus blade is cut or broken, the pattern is visible in the cross section. Throughout history, multiple cultures have referred to Damascus as โwatered steel.โ They were also called โdamasceneโ or โdamascenedโ swords. [6]
The City that Named a Steel
There are several theories about the origin of the name โDamascus.โ The most common is that it was named as the capital city of Syria that became famous for its swordsmiths. [4] The city of Damascus became the primary customer for ingots of Wootz steel from India and Sri Lanka and a leader in blade making from the 3rd to the 17th century. [5]
Other theories claim the name is derived from โdamas,โ the Arabic root word for โwateredโ and the origin of the word โdamask.โ There are also records of a swordsmith named Damasqui who used crucible steel. [7]
Over time, the production of Damascus swords declined. The last account is from Sri Lanka in 1903 by Coomaraswamy. [8]
Crucible Steel Versus Pattern Welding
Beginning in the 18th century, some gunsmiths began using the term Damascus steel for their pattern-welded gun barrels.
Pattern welding involves stacking and welding hard and soft metals together to form a billet, which is then drawn out and folded. Sometimes decorative patterns are cut into the metals to create complex designs. Pattern welding dates to the first millennium BC and was used by the Celts and Vikings. [9]
Although similar in appearance, pattern welded steel is not the same as Damascus. Crucible steel is harder and more time-consuming to produce. Unfortunately, a lot of pattern wielded steel is marketed as Damascus nowadays as well as surface etched blades.
I hope this was helpful. Let me know if you have questions or suggestions by using the Contact Me form on my website or by writing a comment. I post every Friday and would be grateful if you would share my content.
If you want my blog delivered straight to your inbox every month along with exclusive content and giveaways, please sign up for my email list here.
Letโs get writing!
Copyright ยฉ 2022 Rebecca Shedd. All rights reserved.
[1] Dube, R. K. (2014-11-01). โWootz: Erroneous Transliteration of Sanskrit โUtsaโ used for Indian Crucible Steelโ. JOM. 66 (11): 2390โ2396. doi:10.1007/s11837-014-1154-1. ISSN 1543-1851. [2] Figiel, Leo S. (1991). On Damascus Steel. Atlantis Arts Press. pp. 10โ11. ISBN 978-0-9628711-0-8. [3] Pacey, Arnold (1991). Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History. MIT Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-262-66072-3. [4] Goddard, Wayne (2000). The Wonder of Knifemaking. Iola, WI: Krause Publications. pp. 137โ145. ISBN 978-0-87341-798-3. [5] Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003). The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c. 1350โ1650. Cambridge University Press. p. 192. ISBN 0-521-82613-6. [6] Osborn, Marijane (2002). โโThe Wealth They Left Usโ: Two Women Author Themselves through Others' Lives in Beowulfโ. heroicage.org. Department of English, University of California at Davis. Retrieved 6 July 2021. [7] Bฤซrลซnฤซ, Muแธฅammad ibn Aแธฅmad (1989). Kitฤb al-jamฤhir fฤซ maสปrifat al-jawฤhir [The book most comprehensive in knowledge on precious stones: al-Beruni's book on mineralogy]. Islamabad: Pakistan Hijra Council. ISBN 969-8016-28-7. OCLC 25412863. [8] Feuerbach, Anna Marie. (2002). Crucible steel in Central Asia: production, use, and origins. University of London. OCLC 499391952. [9] Verhoeven, John D. (2002). โGenuine Damascus Steel: a type of banded microstructure in hypereutectoid steelsโ (PDF). Materials Technology. Iowa State University. Steel Research, 73 (8): 356โ365. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2006 โ via Internet Archive.
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