Writer’s Deep Dive: Metalworkers
Posted on September 16, 2022 1 Comment
When most people think of metalworkers, the image that commonly comes to their mind is a medieval blacksmith hammering at his anvil. However, there are other types of metalworkers, most of whom were skilled in a specialized craft.
I will focus in this article on metal crafts from before the Industrial Revolution. Unfortunately, that means I will leave out ironworkers, welders, and machinists.
Now, let’s dive in!
Whitesmiths
While blacksmiths worked with dark-colored metals such as iron, whitesmiths worked with light colored metals such as tin. [1] Whitesmithing is also used as a term for finishing work such as polishing, filing, lathing, and burnishing. [2] The first written description of a whitesmith is from 1686. [3]
Jewelers
Although we rarely consider people who craft metal jewelry as metalworkers, they are masters at manipulating gold, silver, and other precious metals. The first metal jewelry was copper and made 7,000 years ago. [4] The ancient Egyptians crafted and wore a tremendous amount of gold jewelry.
Founders
A founder is a craftsman who casts objects by pouring molten metal into molds. A variety of metals can be cast, including aluminum, cast iron, bronze, brass, and steel. There are also many types of casting, such as sand casting, shell molding, die casting, and loam molding. The oldest cast piece is a copper frog from 3200 BC, that was found in Mesopotamia. The Chinese began casting iron between 800 and 700 BC and the technology made its way to Europe in the 15th century.
Farriers
Farriers specialize in shoeing horses, although it also involves trimming the excess growth off the hoof. These tradesmen must have blacksmithing skills to custom fit or even fabricate horseshoes, but also knowledge of the anatomy of the lower leg and foot. Although the term farrier is synonymous with horses, there are farriers who see to the trimming and health of the hooves of cattle, goats, and sheep. The first horseshoes were made of leather or woven plants. The metal horseshoe developed in northern Europe during the 6th and 7th centuries.
Armorer
A craft specializing in armor, this art requires blacksmithing and usually leatherworking. Plate armor was first used by the ancient Greeks and full suits of plate mail were developed in Europe, starting the 12th century and through the 14th.
Blade and Gunsmiths
Bladesmithing is a catch-all terms for craftsmen who made a variety of blades, including knives, daggers, scythes, and swords. [5] There are specific terms for each type, such as knifemaker and swordsmith. Blademaking is a specialized skill that requires knowledge of metallurgy and various techniques. Different regions became famous for their unique metal, techniques, or quality.
The art nearly died out in the Western world after the Middle Ages when the sword stopped being a common weapon of war. The last couple of decades have seen a rebirth, although much of the knowledge was lost. Other parts of the world kept the craft alive, such as Japan, where they never stopped making blades.
Gunsmithing is the art of crafting and repairing firearms. It requires incredible precision and exact machining.
I hope this was helpful. Let me know if you have questions or suggestions by using the Contact Me form on my website or by writing a comment. I post every Friday and would be grateful if you would share my content.
If you want my blog delivered straight to your inbox every month along with exclusive content and giveaways, please sign up for my email list here.
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Copyright © 2022 Rebecca Shedd. All rights reserved.
[1] Susan Hanway Scott (2012), "Whitesmithing", The Hunt Magazine, vol. Summer 2012 [2] John Holland (1831). "VI". A treatise on the progressive improvement and present state of the manufactures in metal. Vol. II:Iron and Steel. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman, and John Taylor. pp. 124–157. [3] Oxford English Dictionary https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/ [4] Holland, J. 1999. The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia. Kingfisher books. [5] Barney, Richard W.; Loveless, Robert W. (March 1995) [1977]. How to Make Knives. Knife World Publications. ISBN 0-695-80913-X.
The Writer’s Guide to the History of Blacksmithing
Posted on September 2, 2022 4 Comments
Blacksmithing has a long history. Only stone working is older. The craft was refined and advanced by trial and error and through interactions between cultures. The weapons and tools produced by these early smiths forged cities and countries.
As always, magic is the exception to the rule. Because magic.
The Copper Age
Between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age is the Copper Age or the Chalcolithic Age, which just means “copper stone” in Greek. [1] It lasted roughly from the late 5th to the 3rd millennia. Gold, silver, and copper were the first metals worked by humans since they are malleable and occur naturally. Elaborate shapes could be crafted from these metals and as well as tools and weapons hardened by long periods of light tapping known as work hardening. Evidence of copper smelting during this period was found in Serbia. [2]
The Bronze Age
Lasting from approximately 3,300 BC to 1,200 BC, this period saw the growing use of bronze and the development of advanced techniques, such as smelting, melting, casting, riveting, and forging. Bronze is a mixture of copper and either tin, arsenic, or other metals. It is harder than copper, more resistant to corrosion, and has a lower melting point, making it easier to melt and cast. [3] Just like copper, bronze cannot be tempered with heat but must be work hardened. Bronze smithing appears to have originated in the Middle East with the Indus River Valley civilianization, but it spread across Asia, Europe, and Africa. It was also developed in the Americas with the Incas, the Moche civilization, and the Calchaquí people of Argentina, all possessing the technology. [4]
The Iron Age
The Bronze Age ended with a period of sudden and violent social collapse. Even today, we are unsure of the cause, although natural disasters and invasions are common theories. The Late Bronze Age Collapse engulfed most of southeast Europe, west Asia, and North Africa. The knowledge of smelting and working iron developed in Anatolia, where it was closely guarded. With the collapse of their empire, the knowledge rapidly spread throughout the Middle East, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
The Steel Age
Unlike the sudden transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, the development of steel was sporadic and uneven. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and Iron Age smiths would occasionally make it by accident. The weapons made from this accidental steel were highly prized and considered gifts from the gods. In some cultures, these weapons were the only ones given names. There were some civilizations that discovered the secret to making steel, but they usually guarded it closely and prevented the knowledge from spreading. There is evidence of limited production from Anatolia from as far back at 1800 B.C. [5]
The Roman ensured their legions were equipped with steel. Their weapons were far superior to those made of iron, and they recorded that when they were fighting the Celts, their opponents had to step on their swords to straighten them after two or three swings.
The earliest and most consistent production of high carbon steel took place in southern India. Known as Seric Iron or Wootz steel, it was exported to the Romans, Egyptians, Arabs, and Chinese. [6] Later this type of steel was called Damascus, a type that is still prized today for its durable sharp edge. Eventually, the knowledge of how to create steel disseminated throughout the Old World, across Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe. Steelmaking would be the backbone of the Industrial Revolution and the material used to build much of the infrastructure of the modern world.
I hope this was helpful. Let me know if you have questions or suggestions by using the Contact Me form on my website or by writing a comment. I post every Friday and would be grateful if you would share my content.
If you want my blog delivered straight to your inbox every month along with exclusive content and giveaways, please sign up for my email list here.
Let’s get writing!
Copyright © 2022 Rebecca Shedd. All rights reserved.
[1] The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) ISBN 0-19-861263-X, p. 301: “Chalcolithic /,kælkəl'lɪθɪk/ adjective Archaeology of, relating to, or denoting a period in the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, chiefly in the Near East and SE Europe, during which some weapons and tools were made of copper. This period was still largely Neolithic in character. Also called Eneolithic... Also called Copper Age – Origin early 20th cent.: from Greek khalkos 'copper' + lithos 'stone' + -ic”. [2] “Serbian site may have hosted first copper makers”. UCL.ac.uk. UCL Institute of Archaeology. 23 September 2010. Retrieved 22 April 2017. [3] James E. McClellan III; Harold Dorn (2006). Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8360-6. p. 21. [4] “El bronce y el horizonte medio”. lablaa.org. Archived from the original on 17 April 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2010. [5] Akanuma, H. (2005). “The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey”. Anatolian Archaeological Studies. Tokyo: Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology. 14: 147–158. [6] Srinivasan, Sharada (1994). “Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India”. Papers from the Institute of Archaeology. 5: 49–59. doi:10.5334/pia.60.
Writer’s Deep Dive: Anvils
Posted on August 19, 2022 2 Comments
The anvil is an essential piece of a blacksmith’s equipment and the most iconic symbol of the trade. They may look simple, but there is an incredible amount of clever design that goes into this piece of technology.
Now, let’s dive in!
The Basics
The first anvils were made of stone, then bronze, then wrought iron. As steel became commonplace, iron anvils were faced with it. Most modern anvils are made of forged or cast steel. Steel provides a hard working surface that prevents the anvil from deforming under the repeated impacts and reduces the amount of force lost with each hammer blow.
Early anvils were a simple block. The shape we are familiar with today is the London pattern anvil from the mid-19th century.
The standard anvil is made of these parts:
Face – This is the flat top that is the primary work surface. It has rounded sides that will not cut into the metal. The face is hardened and tempered. Striking the anvil face with full force is discouraged since it can chip or deform it.
Horn – The rounded horn is used to bend metal into curved shapes. It can also be used for drawing. Some anvils have two horns, one rounded and the other square. Others have side horns or clips.
Step – The transition between the horn and the face is the step, since it “steps” down. It is soft and used as a cutting surface.
Hardy Hole – A square hole in the face that is used for punching, bending, and holding a variety of tools called hardy tools.
Pritchel Hole – A hole in the face smaller than the hardy hole that is mainly used for punching.
Most anvils made since the late 18th century have hardy and pritchel holes while European medieval anvils do not.
It is critical for the anvil to have a sturdy base that could withstand the impacts and fire of the forge. Large logs or a big piece of timber are traditional and still common today. Often several feet of the base are buried in the floor to prevent it from moving or falling over. The anvil is secured to the base using spikes, chains, large staples, metal straps, or any other method the smith could come up with.
The anvil was placed close to the forge, so the smith didn’t have to walk far with rapidly cooling metal.
During the Middle Ages, a common practice among blacksmiths was to strike the metal three times, then lightly tap the anvil face. When closing their shops on Saturday, smiths would commonly strike the anvil face three times, although not with full force. Both practices were thought to scare away the devil and witches.
The Write Angle
If you have a character who is a blacksmith, describing them using the different parts of the anvil shows they are skilled at their craft. Also, knowing the different techniques and the parts of the anvil used to achieve them can add interest to a forging scene. It’s more interesting than “he forged the axe head.”
You could write a forge accident where the anvil is not properly secured and falls off the base or the base and anvil topple over.
I hope this was helpful. Let me know if you have questions or suggestions by using the Contact Me form on my website or by writing a comment. I post every Friday and would be grateful if you would share my content.
If you want my blog delivered straight to your inbox every month along with exclusive content and giveaways, please sign up for my email list here.
Let’s get writing!
Copyright © 2022 Rebecca Shedd. All rights reserved.
The Writer’s Guide to Blacksmithing Basics
Posted on August 5, 2022 5 Comments
Since much of fantasy was inspired by the Middle Ages, it makes sense that many novels include blacksmiths. Of course, in a magical setting, blacksmiths can be elevated from hammering out horseshoes to crafting magic rings or enchanted blades. It is also common to see them highlighted in visual medium during the big “gearing up” scenes.
Unfortunately, a lot of misinformation about blacksmithing is repeated in literature. In this series, I will break down the basics, telling the history, explaining the metals, and busting the myths of blacksmithing.
As always, magic is the exception to the rule. Because magic.
Forge and Tools
A blacksmith’s workspace is a forge or smithy. It commonly had a roof and possibly some walls. The roof was vital for shade, providing enough darkness to easily see the color of the metal. It also kept off the sun and rain. In most climates, walls were not needed since the forge provided enough heat.
The hearth where the blacksmith heats metal is also called the forge. Throughout most of history, coal was burned, although wood was also used, and modern smiths employ propane. The fire is stoked with a bellow, which blows air into the base. The modern equivalent is a blower, either hand cranked or electric.
Hot metal is carried and gripped using tongs and hammers of various weights are used to shape it. The anvil is the common work surface. I will do a Deep Dive into them in my next article.
Blacksmiths commonly wear leather aprons to protect themselves from the heat and dirt.
Cold and Hot Forging
The most familiar type is hot forging, in which a smith heats a piece in the forge and works it while it is hot. The metal is nestled into the coals to heat before being moved to the anvil. Temperature and malleability of the metal can be determined by the color, starting red, turning orange, then yellow and last, white. Most forging happens when the metal is bright yellow-orange.
Cold forging involves no heat, only hammering. Copper and bronze can only be hardened by working it cold for a long period.
Forging Techniques
There are seven basic techniques to achieve the desired shape.
Drawing – Probably the most common blacksmithing operation, drawing out causes the billet to become thinner and longer. The piece can also become wider.
Bending – Metal can be bent to create either angles or curves. The anvil is an important tool when bending metal.
Upsetting – The technique causes the metal to become thicker on one end by shortening the other side. Upsetting can be performed by hammering on either the hot or cold side.
Punching – This operation produces a hole in the metal. A punch, a type of chisel with a rounded tapering head would be rested against the hot metal and hammered through. Widening the hole is called drifting and uses a series of increasingly larger punches. If a split is desired, a chisel is used. It is also used to cut the metal.
Swaging – This technique involves forcing either hot or cold metal through a die to produce shapes too intricate to make with a hammer alone.
Welding – Using this process, two pieces of metal are joined. To achieve this, the pieces must be clean and free of forge scale. Then the metal is heated until it is a bright yellow or white. The smith must be careful not to overheat the metal or it will burn or melt. Flux is used to carry scale out of the weld and protect the metal from burning. Flux is typically powdered borax, silica sand, or a mixture of the two. The two pieces are hammered together until a weld forms, often causing a lot of sparks.
Heat Treating and Quenching
Heat treating is a method to harden or soften metal. There are several techniques including annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering, carburizing, and normalizing. These methods can be applied to the entire piece or portions of it.
The most well-known heat treatment method, and commonly, the last step in the forging process is quenching. The metal is heated to between 1,500 and 1,650° F (815-900°C) then submerged in water or oil, rapidly cooling it. This hardens the metal. However, the process is incredibly stressful to the metal, which can warp, crack or break.
Finishing
After hardening, the piece is brushed and filed to remove burrs and sharp edges. The rest of the finish process depends on what the item is, such as sharpening and attaching a handle on knives and swords.
I hope this was helpful. Let me know if you have questions or suggestions by using the Contact Me form on my website or by writing a comment. I post every Friday and would be grateful if you would share my content.
If you want my blog delivered straight to your inbox every month along with exclusive content and giveaways, please sign up for my email list here.
Let’s get writing!
The Writer’s Guide to Medieval Army Logistics
Posted on July 22, 2022 6 Comments
Raising an army and learning how to deploy it tactically will only get your protagonist so far. To keep your army in the fight, he or she will have to supply it. This can be a challenge, especially in a pre-industrial world without automobiles, trains, or airplanes. History again can provide us with a wealth of inspiration.
As always, magic is the exception to the rule. Because magic.
Equipping an Army
For an army to be effective, it must be equipped with weapons and armor. All modern standing armies provide their soldiers with everything, including weapons, equipment, and clothing. But throughout most of the ancient and medieval periods, soldiers were required to provide their own clothing, weapons, armor, and even food. The Romans were a notable exception. Under the Visigoth legal code (circa 680), soldiers were expected to bring their own armor and shields. In a letter, Charlemagne recorded that horsemen must provide “a shield, lance, sword, dagger, bow, and quivers with arrows.” [1] A law passed in 1252 required all Englishmen aged 15 to 60 to own a bow and arrows. It was mandatory for knights going on crusade to bring a string of horses.
Soldiers could also buy what they needed from merchants and craftsmen along the way or at their destination. [2] Goods and services included shoeing for their horses and metal, wood, and leather goods. During the First War of Scottish Independence, which began in 1296, sheriffs in Scotland and Wales would forcefully buy food, horses, and carts from merchants, paying low prices. The goods were transported to the border where English conscripts could purchase them. In the early 1300s, the English had a system where merchants were asked to meet the army. However, the merchants often used this an opportunity to charge outrageous prices. [3]
Of course, looting and pillaging were another way for soldiers to acquire goods. It was common during the Middle Ages for armies to loot villages and cities they captured and to pillage the countryside while they were on the march.
Feeding an Army
As the saying goes, “an army marches on its stomach.” Yet most ancient and medieval armies required their soldiers to feed themselves. For example, the Carolingians in the 8th century required their soldiers to bring enough food for three months. If they still needed them after their food ran out, they would provide it for free. Other countries would provide food, but it was instead of wages. [4] Saxon soldiers during the German civil war in the 1070s were required to bring enough supplies for the entire campaign. [5] Food was commonly transported in carts or on pack animals. Herds of cattle were also used to provide fresh meat. According to Bernard Bachrach in “Military Logistics: Carrying Food Supplies,” a herd of 1,000 cattle could feed an army of 14,000 for roughly ten days. [6]
Food could also be bought from local merchants or farmers, or foraged or looted from the countryside.
The Baggage Train
The baggage train was a civilian contingent that transported the supplies that the soldiers were not carrying themselves. Members of the train could also provide goods and services to the army, including blacksmiths, cobblers, laundresses, and prostitutes. Often medical personnel traveled with the baggage train as well as the wives and children of the soldiers. The train was often vulnerable, such as when the French attacked the English baggage train at the battle of Agincourt.
Campaign Season
Although modern armies fight year-round, ancient and medieval armies only fought during the campaign season, which started in spring and ended in autumn. This ensured that the fields would still be planted and harvested, preventing starvation. It provided logistical challenges since armies had to be transported to the battlefield in the spring and home again in the autumn. This was especially challenging if it involved distance or an ocean journey, such as crossing the English Channel to fight in France. It was also a challenge to commanders when all their soldiers decided they had to go home to harvest the crops.
Even if an army stayed together through the winter, it was unlikely they would do any fighting unless they were in a warm climate. For areas that experienced snow and inclement weather, the army would be idle and had to be housed, warmed, and fed. Unless a reliable supply line existed or the army was camped in an area with plentiful resources, this situation often resulted in a hungry, miserable winter. General George Washington’s winter camp at Valley Forge is a good example.
I hope this was helpful. Let me know if you have questions or suggestions by using the Contact Me form on my website or by writing a comment. I post every Friday and would be grateful if you would share my content.
If you want my blog delivered straight to your inbox every month along with exclusive content and giveaways, please sign up for my email list here.
Let’s get writing!
Copyright © 2022 Rebecca Shedd. All rights reserved.
[1] Halsall, Paul. “Medieval Sourcebook: Charlemagne: Summons to Army c.804-11”. sourcebooks.fordham.edu. Retrieved 2020-11-12. [2] Bachrach, Bernard S.; Bachrach, David S. (2017). “Military Logistics: Arms and Equipment”. Warfare in Medieval Europe c.400-c.1453. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 9781138887664. [3] Abels, Richard. “War in the Middle Ages: Medieval Logistics – English Experience”. United States Naval Academy. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2017. [4] Abels, Richard. "War in the Middle Ages: Medieval Logistics – English Experience". United States Naval Academy. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2017. [5] Bachrach, Bernard S.; Bachrach, David S. (2017). "Military Logistics: Supplies Carried by Militia Troops". Warfare in Medieval Europe c.400-c.1453. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 9781138887664. [6] Bachrach, Bernard S.; Bachrach, David S. (2017). "Military Logistics: Carrying Food Supplies". Warfare in Medieval Europe c.400-c.1453. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 9781138887664.
Rebecca Shedd - Author 